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In an earlier series of letters on " Sociallleform , ' I briefly commented upon the struggle within the early Christian Church , between the principles of communism and individualism . It is now my intention to trace the development of the social idea during the middle ages , and its influence on European civilization . The fourteenth century is distinguished by the rise and development of unmonastic associations in Germany and the Netherlands , an unmistakable sign of the decay of monachism . The regular succession of new orders and their decline , leading to the establishment of others , marks the whole history of monachism , and was
at no period more remarkable than from the eleventh to the fourteenth century , when there appeared , one after the other , five new orders , all seeking to restore the ancient severity of monastic discipline . The expediency of having so many different orders becoming doubtful , Pope Innocent III . forbade the establishment of any new one . But , scarcely had this prohibition been issued , when the popes saw occasion to suspend its operation , in favour of a new form of monachism , which promised to be useful to the Papal power . The monks , hitherto , had been considered in the light of penitents , renouncing all communication with the world . But this
mode of life had now become suspicious , and men had learned to value a different kind of apostolic life and usefulness . The first of these new orders was founded by Francis of Assisi , who , in the year 1207 , began to gather a fraternity around him , and introduced among them a truly apostolic life of self-denial and activity . The fanatical veneration of the Franciscans for their founder ( Peter Seraphicus ) led them to believe that his life was an accurate copy of that of Jesus , and to apply to him certain prophecies . Thus arose among the Franciscans an Apocalyptic party , who not only declared the Church to
be entirely corrupt , but considered the whole work of Christ to have been only a preparation for a more perfect revelation of the Holy Ghost . At their head was Peter John Olivi , ( a . d . 1297 , ) who , by his commentary on the Apocalypse , and his bitter censures on the Popes , raised the fanatical hopes of his party , and gained many followers . The divisions of the Franciscans ended in the establishment of a separate fraternity , the Celestine Eremites ; but they were broken up by Boniface VIII ., ( a . d . 1302 , ) and their members persecuted as heretics ; which led , eventually , to their entire separation from the order and the Church .
Whilst the hierarchy were thus involved in a < 'onstanfc struggle for temporal power , the limit of free inquiry was more and more narrowed hs the church system was developed , and its disciplinar y powers perverted from their original character . The opposition to the Church became general . While Tanchelm in the Netherlands , and Euda de Stella in Bretagne and Gascouy , were inflaming the minds or tlio people , two ecclesiastics in the south of Franco , Peter de Bruis and Henry , began to declaim most ^ edously against the machinery of the Church , Hud the corruption of tlio clergy . JLiko Peter and Henry , Peter Waldensis of Lyons , with a number of followers , ( a . d . 1170 ) began to 1 preach the
Gospel after tlio manner of the primitive apostles , and they afterwards separated themselves entirely from the Church . The sanguinary mcamires taken against the heretics only confirmed them in their convictions , and drove them to . seek refuge in other countries , where they secretly eontiuued to disseminate their doctrines in wpite of the violent inquisitorial persecutions to which all the unmonastic associations were exposed . In the . Netherlands , and in Germany , groat progress was also made by tho Alexiani , or Fratres CelliLe , called Lollards " Begharda by the people , who Jiad associated themselves in Antwerp soon after ' ¦ ho year IIKK ) for tho cam of the Bick and tho dead . in proportion as tlio papal power became irro-Nistible , the heretical parties iiHsuinod more and noro the character of fanaticism , and sought to ] 'iy the foundations of their religious faith without tho Church . Towards tho end of tho fourteenth century , three , of tho Bohemian clergy , Y <> nra < l Stielcna , John Milicz , and Miithian von ''" now , tho preoursorH of Muss , directed their iittiickn against tho mendicant ; orders , to whoso " Huenoo they chiefly ascribed tho oxisting corruption . And in England thoro now appeared '' ohn Wielillo , a Follow of Morton Collogo ,
Oxdition , simultaneously rose against their oppressors ; and while the religious Reformers denounced the corruption of the clergy , the popular leaders incited their followers to rebel against the insufferable tyranny of the privileged orders . Two things materially contributed to the success of this great social revolution , —the resistance of the Commons to the feudal system , and the concentration of the executive power in the Crown . I remain , yours faithfully , William Coningham . Kemp Town , August 12 th .
ford , who , favoured on the one hand by the indignation of the people against the papal power , and on the other , by the mistrust of the government , instituted an impartial examination into the customs and doctrines of the Church of Rome . He first came forward in the controversies of the University with the mendicant orders , and fearlessly proclaimed their corruption . While these violent dissensions were raging in the Church , a great social movement declared itself throughout Europe . The common people , who were in the most abject and miserable con-
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ON THE CULTIVATION OF FLAX . * VIL Fob some weeks past , the pressure of important news has not permitted us to revert at length to this subject , but we have not spent our vacation , in idleness . Determined to give our readers the means of judging for themselves as to tlie respective merits of the various systems of preparing the fibre , and mistrusting the entire accuracy of the published analyses of this plant , we have instituted a series of experiments ( 12 in number ) , and the result appears to fortify us in the opinion we had previously expressed , that the present methods of preparation are highly wasteful and intensely slovenly . We have advocated the " dry" preparation because it is the only one wliich enables us to make use of the " refuse" of the flax plant . The value of this refuse had not , we believe , been hitherto ascertained , and we claim the credit of being the first to advance proof , satisfactory to the scientific agriculturist , that there is no portion of the flax plant which is not highly valuable to the feeder of stock , and that he who will persist in saving nothing but the seed and the fibre has no right to complain of the gradual deterioration of his land .
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* Vido Leader , Nob . 110 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 116 , 124 .
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Carbon . H ^ ° " Oxygen . Salts . 60 Parts of pure fibre contain 1790 500 36-40 070 00 „ fibre with gum „ 2150 675 3175 1-00 60 ram resin „ 2200 4-70 3000 330 60 , wood with gum ,, 3862 333 16-54 1-51 60 „ linseed „ 2925 6 C 6 23 59 050 60 „ seed capsules „ 24-37 425 3078 060
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The salts consist of chlorides , sulphates , and carbonate of potassium calcium , with traces of silicic acid , but neither alumina , magnesia , nor iron , were detected , although they have been said to exist in other specimens . The theory , therefore , that pure fibre is derived almost entirely from the atmosphere is again confirmed , as well as tho additional fact that the wood and gum of tho flax plant , in their natural state , are highly valuable , either as a vehicle tor linseed , or to enter into any other compound for cattle , of wliich straw or hay-chaff forms a part . It will follow that all other portions of tho plant being used on the farm , the salts carried off in the pure fibre may bo readily restored to tho land at an inconsiderable cost . Two bushels of soot and one bushel of bone-dust per acre being in truth sufficient to replace tho inorganic matter extracted from the soil . Further experiments tend to show that about 33 per cent , of the plant consists of fibro with the gum attached , or about 20 per cent , of puro fibre , ho that flax sleepers , who obtain on tho average but V 2 \ per cent ., and take credit for tho improvements which havo led to thin result , literally sacrifice 7 ? j 11 ) H . of fibro out of overy 100 Ib . s . of straw , or nt least 300 lbs . on every acre grown ! After this further explanation of tho real character of the plant under diHcus . sion , our readers will be prepared for our recommendation that tho flax crop Hhould 1 ) 0 harvested jih carefully an if it wero so much wheattho need destined for an agricultural hIiow , and tho straws wherewith to imbibe Sherry Cobbler in tho dogdays . This in no very difficult matter with a little attention . The first consideration in the maturity of tho plant , which may bo said , to bo Hufficiontly perfect as hoou an the needs assume a brown tinge , and tlio stalks become yellow nearly to the top . Then select a fino dry day for the operation of pulling tho crop , which in thuH performed : tho puller hoi / oh h good handful of the flax with ono hand just below tho Hood branched , and
pressing the other hand upon it , lifts it from the soil and lays it behind him--each succeeding handful being placed roots and heads alternately , to prevent the entangling of the seed-bolls . Great care should be taken to keep the root ends even , the value of which precaution will be felt hereafter . If any of the crop be laid by the rain , it should be first pulled and set carefully aside . If the ground be not perfectly level , or should the drainage of the field be unequal or deficient , a portion of the crop will run short in length , and this may be cleared off after the first pulling , and kept by itself
—evenness of length being a great desideratum in flax . After the pullers , children follow to set up the crop for drying . This is generally done by ranging the handfuls directly opposite each other in the form of the letter A , but we have found the following to be a useful modification of this system . As soon as a certain breadth has been pulled , place a couple of forked sticks , about 2 | feet long , into the ground , about 10 feet apart , and lay a hazel rod from fork to fork . Then set up a handful of flax as pulled on one side , taking care to spread the root ends well out in the form of a fan , and another handful next to it on the other side of the rod ,
and so on until it is full . This will effectually prevent all rough usage to the seed capsules , and greatly facilitate the after operations of turning . The whole crop being thus set up , stick an ugly noisy boy to scare away the birds from the linseed , and see t hat he makes g ood use of his lungs and feet . Like Sir Boyle Boche ' s bird , he should be in two p laces at once , and never s uffer a sparrow to approach , the crop , under pain of loss of his beer .
An active man , with a couple of children to hand him the bunches , will set up an acre of flax per day . After the crop has thus laid for three days turn the handfuls on the rods , so that every portion should dry of an even colour . In six or eight days from the day of pulling , if the weather be favourable , the crop will be ready for stacking , but previously to this being done , the seed , which will then be fully matured , should be taken off . This is done by means of a " ripple , " winch is simply a single or double row of iron teeth screwed into a bloek of hard wood , and fastened to t \\ e middle
of a six or eight foot plank , resting up on a couple of stools or cart supports , which will answer the purpose and save expense . The Royal Irish Flax Society , which , after all , is sometimes right , recommends the ripples to be made " of half-inch square rods of iron , placed with , the angles of iron next the ripplers , three sixteenths of an inch asunder at the bottom , half an inch at the top , and eighteen inches long . The points should begin to taper three inches from the top . " It is in fact just like a comb , and is by far the most useful implement for taking off the seed capsules or " bolls . "
Two men sit facing each ot her on the plank , with the comb between them , and a large sheet underneath to receive the " bolls . " Children lay the handfuls of flax crossing each other , at the side of each rippler , and they are drawn through the instrument until the bolls are oil ' . One hand should be placed near the roots , and the other about eight inches from the heads , and the hands tightly clasped to preserve tlio evenness of the flax . The men strike tho comb alternately , and soon
get through the job . Freed from the seed , the straw is then tied up in bundles about nine inches or a foot in diameter , and , when thoroughly dry , stacked and thatched liko so much wheat . It will be all the better if it is sitflered to remain stooked in the field , and tho stooks occasionally turned , as long as tho weather continues fair . Should rain take place , the building of the stack must bo deferred , and the sheaves opened again and exposed to the huh as long us there bo any . suspicion of the slightest damp .
The seed-bolls should remain in the field if tho weather bo fine , and turned over by tlio " bird keeper " from time to time . Jf rainy , remove them to the barn floor , and give them as much light and air as possible . Jf intended for side , tho Heed may be thrashed out and tho husks preserved for feeding stock , but if the farmer means , an be ought s to uso it at home , there is no necessity for any thrashing . Tho bolls may bo ground down in their whole state , and given to tlio stock in the form we shall prescribe in a future paper .
Here let us pause to consider and adnnro ( practice of tho peasantry in the sister islo in tho < : ase of their linseed . On the 21 ) th of November , 1851 , tho Marquis of Downshiro ( tho nobleman who is reported to havo recommended his tenants to substitute iron for wooden ploughs , beoauso they would last for ever , and make capital horseshoes afterwards !) , to whom a monument should , nevertheless , bo erected for ho boldly exposing tho ignorance , not of tho peasantry , but of those who should direct thorn <<> better things , stated that , in tlio course of a tour , lio found tho high roads " covered with bales of'Jlax , " in the expectation that the 2 > assing oarts and horses would save tho trouble of heating out the seed ; and added , " if I had only a wish to make a
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Au gust 21 , 1852 . ] THE LEADER , 803
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Leader (1850-1860), Aug. 21, 1852, page 803, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse2.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/periodicals/l/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1948/page/15/
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